Sometimes it is difficult understanding the language when describing butterflies, moths, host plants and nectar sources. Interchangeable use can be confusing. Here is a list of terms that you may come across. The first version of this paper was distributed at our Conference in Tauranga, Easter 2009.
Feel free to add to the forum any discussion or note any terms which you don’t understand. From your suggestions we will improve this resource.
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abdomen – The third segment of the body of a butterfly (or other insect) which contains the internal organs like digestive, nervous and excretory systems, as well as sexual organs.
aestivate – to pass the summer or dry season in a dormant condition
anal claspers – hind legs on the caterpillar, used to attach to the silk pad the caterpillar spins at the beginning of the chrysalis stage.
anal prolegs – a pair of stumpy legs at the very end of a caterpillar’s abdomen or hind region
anal valve – exposed claspers at the end of the abdomen with which the male holds on to the female.
androconium – a specialised microscopic scale on the wings of male butterflies which release pheronomes to attract females of the same species. Plural is androconium. Sometimes referred to as ‘sex glands’.
angiosperm – flowering plant which produces seeds enclosed in fruit. It is the dominant type of plant with over 250 thousand species. Angiosperms evolved 125 million years ago, becoming the dominant plant life around 100 million years ago.
antennae – often called ‘feelers’, these are long appendages on the head of the adult butterfly or other insect used for balance and sensing smells. Butterflies have two segmented antennae with club-like ends. Moths have feathery antennae. Singular is ‘antenna’.
anthophyta – the largest group of flowering plants, where flowers are used in reproduction. Butterflies and moths are important pollinators of these plants.
apex – outermost tip of the wing (hindwing and forewing)
apolysis – the process where the cuticle separates from the epidermis when a larva is moulting. Occurs before ecdysis, when the larva produces enzymes to digest the existing cuticle, thus separating the outer cuticle from the larva.
aposematic – describes the attention-getting, warning colouration that protects some organisms from predators that have learned from attacking similarly coloured animals before.
areola – small subdivision at the base of the wing cell or a small ‘window’ on the upper side of a wing scale. Plural areolae
army – group of caterpillars
arthropod – the group of animals which have exoskeletons made of chitin, segmented bodies and jointed limbs. Insects, arachnids, crustaceans and others are arthropods.
Asclepias – the milkweeds, a genus of herbaceous perennial, dicotyledonous plants from the Americas, with over 140 known species. It previously belonged to the family Asclepiadaceae, but this is now classified as a subfamily Asclepiadoideae of the dogbane family Apocynaceae.
bagmoth – a moth whose larva makes tents of silk and bits of leaves. The larva pupate inside the bag. The female cannot fly, it has no wings, legs, antennae or eyes. The moths lay their eggs inside the bag.
basking – butterflies bask in the sun when their body temperature becomes too low that they cannot fly. They sun themselves on rocks or warm surfaces (e.g. road) with outstretched wings in order to absorb as much heat as possible.
blues – butterflies belonging to the worldwide family Lycaenidae.
brood – single generation of butterflies living during the same time period
Buddleia – often spelled Buddleja, a genus of easy-to-grow flowering plants named after the Rev Adam Buddle, English botanist. Often referred to as ‘Butterfly Bush’ as it is very attractive to insects with its high nectar content. About 100 species, not all available in NZ, mostly shrubs but a few being trees. Native throughout the warmer parts of the New World from the southern United States south to Chile, and widely in the Old World in Africa and the warmer parts of Asia, but absent as natives from Europe and Australasia. Blossoms are similar to lilac with sweet nectar attracting many species of butterflies, moths and bees. Note: Buddleia davidii is a declared pest plant in some regions of New Zealand – but there are other varieties which are not. Check with your regional council.
butterfly – flying insect with two pairs of wings, a proboscis, and clubbed antennae, belonging to the order of Lepidoptera and the family Rhopalocera. The word butterfly comes from the Middle English word ‘boterflya’ and the Old English word ‘buttorfleoge’.
cardenolides – one of the two groups of naturally occurring cardiac glycosides; found in plants including Acokanthera, Adonis, Asclepias, Digitalis, Convallaria, Corchorus, Cryptostegia, Euonymus, Gerbera, Gomphocarpus, Nerium and Thevetia spp.
cell – a closed area of an insect wing bounded by veins
chitin – a tough, colourless ingredient which is the major component of the hard exoskeleton of insects including butterflies
chrysalis – the pupal stage of a butterfly. Derived from the Greek word for ‘gold’.
clasper – appendage on the rear segment of the male butterfly/moth’s abdomen used to hold onto the female’s abdomen during mating
classification – the classification of plant and animal species helps in their study and identification.
cluster – group of Monarchs, usually overwintering
clypeus – the hard plate on the top of an insect’s head and is part of its exoskeleton. The butterfly’s labrum or upper lip is at the bottom edge of the clypeus.
cocoon – protective covering made of silk which protects the pupa of a moth and some other insects. It is spun from the abdomen of the caterpillar before pupation.
complete metamorphosis – the complete reorganisation of the tissues of an animal during its life cycle from larva to adult, usually involving the addition of legs and wings.
compound eye – eyes made up of many hexagonal lens or corneas which focus light from each part of the insect’s field of view
costa or costal area – leading edge of the wing
cremaster – the stem by which a pupa or chrysalis hangs, at the abdominal or hind end of a pupa. It replaces the anal claspers in attaching the chrysalis to the branch or stem (or wherever the caterpillar chooses to make its chrysalis).
crochet – small hardened hooklike structure on the end of the abdominal prolegs
cuticle – the outer layer of an insect’s chitinous exoskeleton; skin or exoskeleton of the caterpillar and chrysalis.
Danaidae – group of butterflies also called the ‘milkweed butterflies’ (because milkweed such as swan plant is their larval host plant). The Monarch is one such Danaidae butterfly.
diapause – period of suspended growth or development in the life of some insects, when the weather is too severe or food or water is unavailable. The adults are sexually mature but will not breed. Often confused with quiescence and hibernation.
discal – cell in the middle of a wing that is relatively free of veins
diurnal – most active during the day. Opposite of nocturnal
dorsal – of, toward, on, in or near the back or upper surface of an organism
ecdysis – moulting, where the larva removes the skin or cuticle which has become too small. The cuticle is the skeletal support for larvae, and is inelastic.
eclose – to emerge from the pupal stage
egg – caterpillars hatch from eggs or ova (singular ovum)
endemic – found naturally exclusively in the one geographical place
entomologist – a scientist who studies insects or entomology
eruciform – having a caterpillar-like shape, i.e. cylindrical with a well-developed head and legs.
exoskeleton – an external skeleton, a tough structural body armour made of chitin. Arthropods such as insects, arachnids and crustaceans have segmented exoskeletons.
exuvia – the name for the caterpillar cuticle when it has moulted.
filament – A tentacle or antenna-like extension on the body, usually on larvae. Monarchs have two pairs – one on either end
flier – butterfly in flight
forewings – the two upper wings of flying insects
frass – caterpillar faeces, on a healthy caterpillar comes in pellet(s).
Gomphocarpus – a genus of milkweed, a herbaceous perennial, dicotyledonous plant from the African continent, with over 168 known species. It previously belonged to the family Asclepiadaceae, but this is now classified as a subfamily Asclepiadoideae of the dogbane family Apocynaceae. In NZ we have G. fruticosus (swan plant) and G. physocarpus (giant swan plant).
gravid – a ‘gravid female’ is carrying many mature eggs in her ovaries, ready for fertilisation and oviposition.
grounder – dead and/or alive butterflies on the ground – must have all body parts present to be included in a count
habitat – a space which includes food, water and shelter suitable for the survival and reproduction of an organism
haemolymph – the circulatory fluid of certain invertebrates, analogous to blood in arthropods and to lymph in other invertebrates. Often referred to as the ‘blood’ of butterflies but not to be confused with the blood of vertebrates, i.e. it serves the same purpose but is not the same material.
head – first segment of a butterfly (or other insect) which contains the eyes, antennae and proboscis
hibernation – also referred to as ‘overwintering’ – a condition in which an animal is dormant for a period of time
hindwings – the two lower wings of flying insects
host plant – A plant or plants on which eggs are laid and on which the caterpillars feed
imago – fourth and final stage of an insect, during which it reproduces. Plural is imagines
indigenous – (or native) species whose presence is the result of only natural phenomena. May be found naturally in more than one geographical region, e.g. Yellow Admiral Butterfly is also found in Australia. An indigenous species is not necessarily endemic.
insects – an animal class which has six legs and exoskeletons. They evolved during the Silurian Period, 438 to 408 million years ago, long before dinosaurs existed. ‘insect’ means ‘segmented’ in Latin.
instar – between two moults. A newly-hatched insect is called a first-instar caterpillar. Most caterpillars have five or six instars.
introduced – species that is either inadvertently or deliberately brought to NZ by human transport, and has become established here, e.g. Cabbage White Butterfly, Cinnabar Moth.
invertebrate – animal that lacks a backbone
jaws – referred to as mandibles, the caterpillars bites off plant material and tears it into small, easily digestible pieces
joints – located between the butterfly’s leg segments. Joints help the butterfly bend and move its body.
kingdom – life on earth is divided into five kingdoms of organisms: animals (animalia), plants (plantae), fungi, protozoans with some algae, and blue-green algae. ‘Kingdom’ is the highest grouping of similar organisms.
labial palps – the moustache-like scaly mouthparts of adult butterflies on each side of the proboscis, covered with sensory hairs and scales with which the butterflies tests whether something is good to eat or not
labium – the lower ‘lip’ of butterflies and moths, below the proboscis
labrum – the upper ‘lip’ of butterflies and moths, above the proboscis
larva – caterpillar. The second stage in the metamorphosis of an insect, they eat almost constantly, and moult several times as they outgrow their skins. Plural is larvae.
Lepidoptera – an order of insects that is characterised by having four large scaly wings and a spiral proboscis. Both butterflies and moths belong to this order. There are about 150,000 named species of butterflies and moths, but over 87% are moths. NZ has had identified about 1,500 species of moths, but there are more which have not yet been identified.
lepidopterist – a scientist who studies butterflies and moths
life cycle – butterflies and moths go through four different life stages called the life cycle
loner – two butterflies adjacent each other, or fewer, with closed wings, not associated with a cluster
Lycaenidae – gossamer winged butterflies, small and some with a tail-like projection at the bottom of the hindwings. Undersides of wings are speckled, caterpillars are slug-like and male butterflies have reduced forelegs. In NZ we have coppers and blues in this family.
mandibles – jaws of the caterpillar with which it bites off plant materials and tears it into small, easily digestible pieces
margin – edge of a wing the most distant from the body, usually ‘outer margin’
maxillae – caterpillar’s mouthparts which grasp the food. They have taste cells, which are chemical detectors helping the caterpillar when to eat and not to eat (if the food is not appropriate). In the adult the maxillae are long, forming the proboscis
meconium – a metabolic waste product from the pupal stage that is expelled through the anal opening of the adult butterfly shortly after emergence. It is red, but is not blood
metamorphosis – the transformation of an animal during its life cycle. Butterflies undergo ‘complete’ metamorphosis, as averse to incomplete metamorphosis which is where the young develop gradually, appearing similar to the adults and do not undergo a pupal stage
micropyle – the large depression at the top of a butterfly’s egg. The small pit marks where the sperm entered the egg. While the egg is developing air and water enter the egg through the micropyle.
migration – movement of a large group of one species of animal across many miles to avoid adverse conditions
milkweed – a family of perennial herbs of which there are more than 100 species, native to the American and African continents, containing varying concentrations of toxic chemicals (glycosides). Monarch caterpillars eat milkweed leaves to incorporate the toxins into their bodies in order to poison their predators. Swan plant (Gomphocarpus physocarpus and G. fruticosus) which originate in Africa are examples of milkweed.
mimicry – when two unrelated species have similar markings which benefits all in the group as they gain protection from predators. In America both the Viceroy and the Queen butterflies mimic the poisonous Monarch.
moth – have feathered antennae (not clubbed, as butterflies do) and generally dull in colour. Most moths are nocturnal, flying at night.
moult – the process of losing skin or exoskeleton, and growing a larger one to replace it. The final moult is when a caterpillar turns into a pupa, i.e. pupation.
native – (or indigenous) species whose presence is the result of only natural phenomena. May be found naturally in more than one geographical region, e.g. Yellow Admiral Butterfly is also found in Australia. An indigenous species is not necessarily endemic.
nectar – the sweet liquid produced by many flowers. Adult butterflies sip nectar through their proboscis
nectar plant – A plant on which adult butterflies, moths, bees etc feed, taking nectar from the flowers
nocturnal – most active at night. Opposite of diurnal.
Nymphalidae – huge family of butterflies, containing over 5,000 species divided into many subfamilies. Butterflies in this family have an under-developed pair of front legs. In the males, there is often a tufted scale sac on these front legs, giving these butterflies the nickname “brush-footed butterflies.” Monarchs and Admirals are members of this family.
Oe – short for Ophryocystis elektroskirrha, a parasite which infects Monarch butterflies. It was first discovered infecting Monarch and Queen butterflies in Florida in the late 1960s and has since been found in all other Monarch populations worldwide, so is believed to be naturally occurring. Dormant spores occur on the exterior of the cuticles of infected butterflies, sandwiched in between the butterfly’s scales. Using a microscope, they appear as small, brown or black lemon-shaped objects about 1/100th the size of a butterfly scale. Females transfer the parasite to the plant when laying eggs, caterpillars then eat the parasite. Severely infected adults have difficulty emerging from their pupal cases, and can be too weak to cling to their pupal case to fully expand their wings. They either fail to eclose fully or fall to the ground, leading to severe wing deformities and relatively rapid death. More information about Oe here.
ocelli – small simple eyes of insects. Singular is ocellus
overwintering – sometimes referred to as hibernation (although it is not strictly that) a condition in which an animal is dormant for a period of time
oviposit – to lay an egg
oviposition – the act of laying eggs.
ovipositor – an organ at the end of the female’s abdomen through which she deposits her eggs
ovum – egg, or first stage of an insect
palp and palpus plural(palps or palpi – a jointed sense organ attached in pairs to the mouthparts of butterflies. Covered with sensory hairs and scales, and the butterfly uses them to test whether something is food or not.
parasite – an organism (plant or animal) which lives on another organism (the host), eating it alive and eventually sapping or killing the host.
parasitism – a relationship between two organisms in which one benefits from the other at the second organism’s expense
parasitoid – an organism that lays its eggs in or on another living organism. When the eggs hatch they feed on the live host tissue. Parasites may not kill their hosts but parasitoids do; parasitoids play a key role in the biological control of insect pests.
pheromone – chemicals secreted by some animals that cause specific reactions in other animals, e.g. to attract a mate.
photoperiod – the period of daylight in every 24 hours, esp in relation to its effects on plants and animals
Pieridae – a family of butterflise which includes the whites. Over 1,000 species worldwide.
pinaculum – dark, flattened plates on a caterpillar’s body which bear the setae (tactile hairs)
predator – an organism which attacks, kills and eats its host. Birds are generally predators of insects.
prepupa – the last larval instar of an insect, after it stops eating. The insect is resting and may look shriveled up or dead. Often referred to as a ‘J’ with Monarch larvae because of the shape.
prey – an animal is prey when another animal hunts and kills it for food
proboscis – a tube-like, flexible ‘tongue’ which butterflies and moths use to sip nectar from. It coils up when not in use, and uncoils to sip food. When the butterfly emerges from the pupa, the proboscis is at first in two parts.
prolegs (false legs) – stumpy, peg-like legs on the abdomen or hind region of a caterpillar. These legs disappear in the adult butterfly. They have ‘crochets’ or small hooks on them.
prothoracic shield – dorsal portion or plate of the first thoracic segment
puddling – when a butterfly lands on the ground and sips water rich in nutrients such as sodium.
pupa (chrysalis) – The third life stage of a Butterfly where it changes from a larva to a imago (adult butterfly). This stage is well hidden to avoid predators and the worst of the weather. Different species of butterflies use different methods for pupae placement. Plural ‘pupae’.
pupate – the act of changing from a larva into a pupa
quiescence – slowing down of activity in cold weather
rabble – group of butterflies, sometimes referred to as a swarm
scales – tiny overlapping pieces of chitin on a butterfly or moth’s wing. The scales are outgrowths of the body wall and are modified setae or hairs.
setae – long, stiff hairs or bristles found on some caterpillars, used to sense taste
sexual dimorphism – the physical differences between males and females of a species. Frequently, male and female butterflies are distinguished by vein width and other characteristics.
spermatophore – a packet containing sperm that male butterflies and moths transfer to the female during mating
spinneret – a tube-like structure on a larva’s lower lip (labium) that has the spinning apparatus or silk glands of the caterpillar. Silk is made in the salivary glands from a tube in the spinneret, which dries when exposed to air. Caterpillars use this silk to support themselves and to make webs.
spiracle – breathing holes; the openings to an insect’s respiratory system, located on the sides of the thorax and abdomen, usually one pair per segment. Spiracles are also on the chrysalis and butterfly.
stridulation – the noise that some butterflies and moths make by rubbing rasp-like abdominal appendages together. The purpose of this noise is unknown.
sunner – used to describe a butterfly which is ‘sunning’, the wings are open and the temperature will be in excess of 55 degrees Celsius
swarm – a group of butterflies, sometimes referred to as a ‘rabble’
symbiosis – a situation in which two dissimilar organisms live together. There are various types of symbiosis, including mutualism (both organisms benefit), commensalism (one benefits and the other is not affected) and parasitism. Symbiosis is Greek for ‘living together’.
tactile setae – long hairs that butterflies and moths use to sense touch. They are attached to nerve cells and relay information about touch to the insect’s brain. Setae grow through holes in the hard, chitinous exoskeleton.
tagging – a process in which an animal is fitted with a small label bearing a serial number on it, noting where and when the animal was found, and other appropriate information. Scientists later retrieve the animal and can interpret the information obtained, determining where, when, how fast, and how far the animal travelled. This can provide insight as to how fast they travel, how animals navigate during migrations, how they cope with weather variations, how different groups of a species differ, etc.
tarsus – the last segment of a leg of a butterfly or moth. Has gripping claws and taste organs so that the insect can grip a flower and determine if it contains nectar. Plural tarsi.
tentacles – also known as filaments. Flesh appendages provide sensory information for the caterpillar. Often mistaken for antennae.
thoracic legs – three pairs of jointed legs on the thorax or mid-region of a caterpillar, with a grasping hook at the end
thorax – the second segment of a butterfly (or other insect) which contains the wings and legs, between the head and the abdomen
trachea – tiny tubes that carry air through the body of a butterfly or moth
true legs –
tubercle – small, knob-like protuberance that sometimes bears a spine or stores and can release a chemical
veins – rib-like tubes in the wings that provide the framework and bring nourishment to the wings
ventral – the ‘belly’ of a butterfly or larvae. The lower part of the abdomen.
wingspan – the distance between the outer tip (or apex) of the left and right wings on a butterfly or moth
woolly bear – the hairy caterpillar of any of the Arctiidae species of moths
